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Dionysius is the author of three long treatises (The Divine Names,
The
Celestial Hierarchy, and The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy) one short
treatise (The Mystical Theology) and ten letters expounding various
aspects of Christian Philosophy from a mystical and Neoplatonic perspective.
Presenting himself as Dionysius the Areopagite, the disciple of Paul mentioned
in Acts 17:34, his writings had the status of apostolic authority until
the 19th century when studies had shown the writings denoted a marked influence
from the Athenian Neoplatonic school of Proclus and thus were probably
written ca. 500. Although the attribution of authorship has proven
to be a falsification, the unknown author (hereafter referred to as Ps-Dionysius)
has not lost his credibility as an articulate Athenian Neoplatonist expressing
an authentic Christian mystical tradition. Indeed with eloquent poetic
language and strong exposition of ideas, the Dionysian corpus ranks among
the classics of western spirituality.
Table of Contents (Clicking on the links below will take you to those parts of this article)
1. History and Development of Christian Platonism up to Pseudo-Dionysius
Born within a 500-year old Graeco-Roman culture, Christianity received
a pervasive influence from the then 400-year old Platonist tradition very
early on. Despite the official outlawing of so-called pagan philosophy
in the 6th century, Platonism or Neoplatonism, continued to maintain a
dynamically evolving influence for the ensuing thousand years within the
sphere of Christianity and beyond that, interest in Platonism is waxing
strong today. In general, the prominent early Christian Platonists were
men already possessing a classical Graeco-Roman culture and schooled in
the Middle Platonic tradition and who would subsequently convert to Christianity
thus bringing their background and knowledge to the service of their new
faith. Already, Philo of Alexandria (20 BC - 40 AD) had developed
an extensive Middle Platonic interpretation of the Jewish scriptures (scriptural
symbology, logos theology, moral philosophy, etc.). With the solid framework
provided by Philo, Alexandria became the home of the first Christian Platonists:
Clement
(160 - 220) and Origen (185 -253) who both in their own way crafted
a considerable system of correspondences between Platonism and Christianity.
The influence of Neoplatonism can be seen with the Cappadocian fathers
Basil
(330-379), Gregory Nazianzus (329 - 389), and
Gregory of Nyssa
(331/40 - ca. 395); as well as Synesius of Cyrene (373? - 414).
Origen's influence continued with the fathers of the Egyptian desert,
Macarius
(295 - 386), Evagrius Pontus (345 - 399), and John Cassian
(+350). The Neoplatonic influence appears in the Latin Church with Marius
Victorinus (281/291- ?), Ambrose (354 - 450),
Augustine
(354 - 430), and Boethius (460? - 524). Philiponus
(fl. 500?) is a Christian Neoplatonist who studied with the last teachers
of the pagan Athenian school.
2. Mystery Schools, Gnosticism, Hermeticism, and the "Platonic Underground"
In accordance with his Neoplatonic background, Ps-Dionysius adopts the
initiation language of the Mystery religions. Basically, the Mystery religions
can be considered as the esoteric counterpart to the exoteric popular religions.
The symbols and mythology of popular cults of worship are thought to contain
an esoteric meaning which reveal a deeper mystical knowledge. The pledge
of secrecy being integral to the Mystery religions, comparatively little
information about them has come down to us. There seems to be a stock of
similar myths, symbols, and ritual common to all of them and their influence
was pervasive in both the Pagan and Christian world:
The Soul was the one subject, and the knowledge of the Soul
the one object of all the ancient Mysteries. In the 'Fall' of PISTIS-SOPHIA,
and her rescue by her Syzygy, JESUS, we see the ever-enacted drama of the
suffering and ignorant Personality, which can only be saved by the immortal
Individuality or rather by its own yearning towards IT (H. P. Blavatsky,
"Commentary on the Pistis-Sophia," in Collected Writings, Vol. XIII,
The Theosophical Publishing House, Wheaton: 1982, p. 40).
The Neoplatonic schools at this period can be considered to represent a
middle ground between the pagan esoteric cults [Hellenic Mysteries,
Oriental Mystery cults (Mithraism, Attis), Hermetism, Greek alchemists
(Zosimos)] and the popular state forms of religious worship. Whether a
Christian Neoplatonist such as Ps-Dionysius played a similar mediating
role between the exoteric forms of Judeo-Christianity (popular Roman Catholic
state religion) and esoteric Christianity (Gnosticism, Arianism, Docetism)
would be a matter of conjecture, but what is interesting is how the Dionysian
corpus formulates a creative philosophical synthesis that reflects a more
open Christian position in a period when all the above-mentioned religious
movements where in a very dynamic state of ferment and conflict which saw
the rise of Christianity and the waning of Paganism.
3. The Works of Dionysius the Areopagite
There are five works ascribed to Dionysius: The Divine Names,
The
Mystical Theology, The Celestial Hierarchy, The Ecclesiastical
Hierarchy and his Epistles. All of these works are interrelated
and, taken together, form a complex whole. Paul Rorem gives a very
good overview of how these works unfold:
The point here is that not all affirmations concerning God
are equally inappropriate; they are arranged in a descending order of decreasing
congruity. Affirmative theology begins with the loftier, more congruous
comparisons and then proceeds "down" to the less appropriate ones.
Thus, as the author reminds us, The Theological Representations
[not extant] began with God's oneness and proceeded down into the multiplicity
of affirming the Trinity and the incarnation. The Divine Names
then affirmed the more numerous designations for God which come from mental
concepts, while The Symbolic Theology [not extant] "descended" into
the still more pluralized realm of sense perception and its plethora of
symbols for the deity. This pattern of descending affirmations and
ascending negations can be interpreted in terms of late Neoplatonism's
"procession" from the One down into plurality and the "return" of all back
to the One. In the "return," not all negations concerning God are equally
appropriate; the attributes to be negated are arranged in an ascending
order of decreasing incongruity, first considering and negating the lowest
or most obviously false statements about God and then moving up to deny
these that may seem more congruous. Thus the first to be denied are
the perceptible attributes, starting with The Mystical Theology,
Chapter 4, which therefore previews the two subsequent treatises on perceptible
symbols, The Celestial Hierarchy and The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy.
Chapter 2 of the former work will continue the theme of negating and transcending
symbols, namely, interpreting first the most incongruous of the perceptible
symbols attributed to the celestial, whether to the angels or to God.
The anagogical or uplifting method of interpretation in these two treatises
incorporates into itself the principles of negative theology. Both
the spatial, material depiction of the angels in the scriptures and also
the temporal, sequential images of God in the liturgy must be transcended
in the ascent from the perceptible to the intelligible. Thus, "as
we climb higher," Chapter 5 of The Mystical Theology denies and
moves beyond all our concepts or "conceptual" attributes of God and concludes
by abandoning all speech and thought, even negations. (Pseudo-Dionysius,
The
Complete Works, New York: Paulist Press 1987, p.140 note).
a. The Divine Names (13 Chapters)
Chapter 1 Dionysius the Elder to Timothy the Fellow
Elder: What the goal of this discourse is, and the tradition regarding
the divine names. A general introduction in which God is considered
omniscient, beyond all human understanding and description and therefore
can only be expressed through symbols, names which are found in the scriptures.
One can approach the truth of God through contemplation of the Divine Symbols.
The conception of God is a philosophical one, akin to the One, or
the Good of Neoplatonism, and not anthropomorphic Old Testament
God of popular theology.
Chapter 2 Concerning the unified and differentiated
Word of God, and what the divine unity and differentiation is.
The Neoplatonic concept of emanation finds its counterpart in the "divine
procession." Jesus Christ is considered to be a mystery that is beyond
human contemplation.
Chapter 3 The power of praying, concerning the
blessed Hierotheus, piety and our theology. Here the author speaks
of his teacher Hierotheus and refers to a work of his entitled "Elements
of Theology" which is not extant.
Chapter 4 Concerning "God," "Light," "Beautiful," "Love,"
"Ecstasy," and "Zeal" and that evil is neither a being, nor from a being,
nor in beings. Here begins the metaphysical explanations of the Divine
Names taken from the scriptures. Also explained is the mystical concept
of "yearning" for union with the Good and the Beautiful. The philosophical
explanation of evil is evidently much more Platonic than the anthropomorphic
concept of evil as expressed by the conventional church dogma. (The parallels
on the discussion of evil to the De Malorum Subsistentia of Proclus
provided the initial clues in proving the pseudonymous authorship.)
Chapter 5 Concerning "Being" and also concerning paradigms.
The
metaphysical causes of Being are discussed.
Chapter 6 Concerning "Life." The transcendent, absolute,
eternal nature of life is dealt with.
Chapter 7 Concerning "Wisdom," "Mind," "Truth," "Faith."
The
basis of a divine, transcendent wisdom where humans derive their intelligence
and understanding through participation with the Divine Mind is discussed.
Chapter 8 Concerning "Power," "Righteousness," "Salvation,"
"Redemption," and also inequality. This chapter deals with the ordering
of the universe according to divine laws by which a transcendent order
maintains the dynamic harmony of all things.
Chapter 9 Concerning greatness and smallness, sameness
and difference, similarity and dissimilarity, rest, motion, equality. It
is shown how the fundamental unity of God can be seen in the multiplicity
of the universe at the macrocosmic and microcosmic levels.
Chapter 10 Concerning "Omnipotent," "Ancient of
Days," and also concerning "Eternity" and "Time." This chapter deals
with the philosophical aspects of time and eternity.
Chapter 11 Concerning "Peace," and what is intended
by "being itself," "power itself" and things said in this vein. The
intelligent harmony which brings things together in a communion of concord
is discussed.
Chapter 12 Concerning "Holy of Holies," "King of Kings,"
"Lord of Lords," "God of Gods." Holy of Holies deals with Purity; Kingship,
with law and order; Lordship, stability through possession of the Good
and the Beautiful, God, Providence which sees everything.
Chapter 13 Concerning "Perfect" and "One." Here
is a synthesis of the whole work, returning to the idea of the One as discussed
in Neoplatonic terms.
b. The Mystical Theology (5 Chapters)
Chapter 1 An explanation of Ps-Dionysius' negative theology
in which one rises to high levels of divine contemplation by defining God
by what it is not because it is beyond assertion and denial.
Chapter 2 How one should be united to, and attribute praises
to the cause of all things which is beyond all things.
Chapter 3 What are the affirmative theologies and what
are the negative. The higher we rise towards the transcendent, the
more language fails to describe it.
Chapter 4 That the supreme cause of every perceptible thing
is not itself perceptible. The negative theology begins by denying
it all formal existence perceptible by the senses.
Chapter 5 It is stated that the supreme Cause of every
conceptual thing is not itself conceptual. We are to apprehend it
by rising to the highest concepts and then going beyond where neither assertion
nor denial can be attributed to it.
c. The Celestial Hierarchy (15 Chapters)
Chapter 1 That every divine illumination, descending
with goodness and according to different modes to the object of its providence,
remains nonetheless simple, and indeed unifies what it illumines. The
treatise begins with an explanation of the value of the symbol as a representation
of spiritual essences.
Chapter 2 It is appropriate to reveal the mysteries
of God and of heaven with symbols without resemblance. Here it is explained
that the many images and symbols in the Bible are not meant to be taken
at dead letter face value. As man is incapable of contemplating Divine
Truth directly, our divinely inspired ancestors have left us symbols adapted
to our capacity of understanding which help us to raise our consciousness
to the understanding and contemplation of the divine truths; the
second function of the symbol is that it also serves as a veil to these
sacred truths for those who it would be imprudent to reveal these things
to. The value of the symbol therefore depends on the person's capacity
to penetrate its secrets.
Chapter 3 In what does the Hierarchy consist of and
what is its use. The notion of hierarchy is that seeing that
not everyone can equally directly contemplate and participate in the supreme
cause, there is therefore a great chain of hierarchies emanating from the
most spiritual origins down to the most material planes. To undertake
the divine ascension, there are intermediaries for every level of reality
like the steps on a ladder. The higher hierarchies, receiving a more
direct illumination, can transmit that light to the lower hierarchies at
the level they are able to perceive it and the higher hierarchies also
serve as an accessible image of the transcendent, an example for the hierarchy
immediately below, whose members can contemplate in order to rise to a
higher level. The closer a hierarchy is to the source of divine light,
the greater the degree of purity and simplicity and resemblance to the
source.
Chapter 4 What the names given to the angels signify.
An
interesting point concerning the hierarchies is that no human being can
directly contemplate the ultimate Source. Even Moses did not have
a direct vision of God but rather a vision adapted to his level of perception.
It is shown how the incarnation of Christ was done in accord with the hierarchical
order of angels.
Chapter 5 Why are all the celestial essences distinctly called
angels. On the hierarchical scales the angels are at the lowest degree
of the hierarchy. This is because the higher levels contain all the
illumination and power of the lower levels; but the lower do not have the
same level of participation with the higher. Therefore the term angel
is used because, in a sense, it is the lowest common denominator.
Chapter 6 What is the first order of the celestial essences,
what is the middle order and what is the inferior order.
All the names of the hierarchies appear in the scriptures. They
are divided into three groups of three hierarchies each:
First - Seraphim, Cherubim and Thrones
Second - Dominions, Virtues and Powers
Third - Principalities, Archangels and Angels
Chapter 7 Of the Seraphim, the Cherubim and the Thrones
and of the first hierarchy that they constitute. The meaning of the
first three angelic hierarchies are as follows:
Seraphim - Fire, "Those who burn"
Cherubim - Messengers of knowledge, Wisdom
Thrones - Seat of God
Chapter 8 Of the Dominions, the Virtues and the Powers
and the middle hierarchy that they constitute. The meaning of the second
order of the hierarchies are as follows:
Dominions - Justice
Virtues - Courage, Virility
Powers - Order, Harmony
Chapter 9 Of the Principalities, the Archangels and the
Angels and of the last hierarchy that they constitute. The meaning
of the third order are as follows:
Principalities - Authority
Archangels - Unity
Angels - Revelation, messengers
Chapter 10 Recapitulation and conclusion concerning the
proper ordering of the angelic hierarchy. Each order, therefore has
in itself three orders - first, middle and last. It is said that
none of the orders are totally perfect; all the hierarchies thus mutually
participate in a constant march, striving towards perfection.
Chapter 11 Why all the celestial essences receive in
common the name of the celestial powers. The celestial powers have
three qualities - essence, power and act.
Chapter 12 Why do the highest of high priests receive
the name of angels. Why are priests called angels? Because although
the lower orders do not participate of the higher orders per se, the illuminations
of the higher orders do radiate all the way through to the lowest orders
in a gradually decreasing brightness, therefore it can be said that the
lower can receive the light of the higher in an indirect manner.
Chapter 13 Why is it said that it is the Seraphim that
purified the prophet Isaiah. In the Bible, when Isaiah was purified
by a Seraphim, it is not to be understood that he was in direct contact
with such an immeasurably high order; what is meant is that the illuminating
properties and powers of the order of the Seraphim had descended through
the several intermediary orders to purify Isaiah. It is a question
of opacity and translucency in regards to the light. Light shines
and its rays can pass through substances depending on its degree of translucency,
will reflect more or less of the light. This analogy applies to human
consciousness in relation to divine light.
Chapter 14 What does the number attributed to the angels
signify. It is stated that there are an immeasurable number of angels
in every order, and therefore a truly infinite number of angels are acting
in the various planes of the universe. There is an angel overlooking
the welfare of every nation as well.
Chapter 15 What are the figurative images of the angelic
powers. This chapter discusses the various symbols in reference to
the angelic functions such as fire; man; infant; sacred clothes and instruments;
air, wind and clouds; metals and stones; animals.
d. The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy (7 Chapters)
Chapter 1 What is the tradition of the ecclesiastical
hierarchy and what is its purpose. It is explained how the tradition
began initially with a divine transmission of sacred symbols and forms
which were thereafter transmitted to succeeding generations.
Chapter 2. 1 The rite of illumination.
The goal of the hierarchy is "greatest likeness and union with god
through obedience of the commandments and doing the sacred acts."
And the first initiation is the divine birth, meaning birth to a spiritual
life.
2.2 A postulant who wishes to enter the spiritual life
has a sponsor who presents him to the hierarch. The postulant goes
through various ritual gestures including being anointed with oil and immersed
in water three times. It is a baptism.
2.3 This is a practical applications of the symbols.
The rituals are not merely functional gestures but are meant to convey
actual transformation processes in the candidates consciousness.
For example, the immersion in water symbolizes a dissolution of the old
material way of life to reemerge into the spiritual which is further symbolized
by putting on bright new clothes and fragrant ointments. Firm opposition
to whatever hinders our communion, brave resolution in striving to uplift
oneself and a will for victory over the forces of death and destruction
is stressed.
Chapter 3.1 The rite of the synaxis.
Or the Eucharist. What these initiation operations do is by granting
communion, it gives the participants an inner unity by gathering together
the divided and scattered fragments of our consciousness.
3.2 Mystery of the synaxis or communion. The Eucharist
is the ritual re-enactment of the last supper.
3.3 A symbolic explanation of the Eucharist is explained
as well as the value of Christ's example that we should strive to imitate.
There is also different levels of participation in the ceremonies according
to one's level of purification, clarity of vision, and freedom from fantasies.
Chapter 4.1 The ritual of ointment and what is perfected by
it. The ointment is the third of the three holy sacraments explained.
4.2 Mystery of the sacred ointment. This consists
in consecrating the sacred ointment used for almost all the sacraments
of sanctification and rites of consecration.
4.3 Perfecting and consecrating with ointment -
symbolizes a visitation of the Divine Spirit.
Chapter 5.1 Concerning the clerical orders, powers,
activities, and consecrations. Here are three orders which are a reflection
of the triple order of the celestial hierarchy. And these orders
have a further triple division. Furthermore they have a triple power
of purification, illumination and perfection.
1- Hierarchs - Sanctification of clerical orders,
consecration of ointment and rite of purification and consecration
of the Holy butter.
2- Priests - Illumination
3- Deacons - Purification
5.2 The mystery of the clerical consecrations of the three
orders. The various rites of consecration of the three orders are explained.
5.3 The hierarch does not work the consecration through
his own personal authority but is rather an intermediary for the Divine
Powers.
Chapter 6.1 Concerning the orders of those being initiated.
Various
categories of candidates who will approach the mysteries are detailed:
1- The three orders of candidates receiving direct instruction
(incubation, instruction).
2- Those who fell away and are returning to the church.
3- Those who are weak, fearful and require strengthening.
4- Those who have lived a life of sin and need sanctification.
5- Those who are attentive to the spiritual life but lack firmness
in practice.
There is then an intermediate level - those ready to enter upon the path
of contemplation; candidate priests for illumination.
There is also the order of monks - they are considered purified and
have complete power and holiness in its own activities within the hierarchies.
6.2 Mystery of the consecration of a monk.
The monastic profession and tonsure is explained.
6.3 Renunciation of all activities in act and thought that
distract from the sacred life is stressed. The correspondence
of purification, illumination and perfection with the celestial hierarchies
is explained.
Chapter 7.1 The rite for the dead. Dying is called
a sacred rebirth.
7.2 Mystery regarding those who died sacredly. The
rites are explained for those who belong to the orders.
7.3 The rewards are not equal for all. One will live in
a state of blessedness in the afterlife corresponding to the degree of
saintliness one has achieved in material life. This treatise closes
on a point concerning baptism of children. The idea of baptism at
a young age is that it is considered good to develop sacred habits at a
young age and the baptism is effected only if it is agreed that the child
be entrusted to a spiritual parent who will afterwards provide them with
a religious education.
e. The Epistles (10 Letters)
Letter 1 - To the monk, Gaius- Deals with negative theology.
Letter 2 - To the monk, Gaius- Is a discussion on the
Good.
Letter 3 - To the monk, Gaius- Deals with the mystery
of Jesus.
Letter 4 - To the monk, Gaius- Of the transcendent character
of Jesus; the humanity of Jesus is emphasized.
Letter 5 - To Dorotheus, deacon- Deals with negative theology.
Letter 6 - To Sosipater, Priest- Denis is against
the denunciation of cults who express a different point of view than Christianity.
Letter 7 - To Polycarp, a hierarch- Regarding a
discussion with Apollophanes, a sophist, Ps-Dionysius counsels not to refute
his opinions but simply establish the truth as clearly as he can and let
the validity of his explanations stand for themselves. There is a
reference to the Mithraic cult as well as to various Christian miracles.
Letter 8 To Demophilus, a monk- This is the
longest of the letters and concerns a monk who turned away a repenting
sinner who wished to return to the church. Ps-Dionysius disapproves
of the monk's actions and extols the virtue of meekness, kindness and tolerance
in which reason governs anger. There are also many details concerning
the practical functioning of the ecclesiastical hierarchy and the authority
and respect that the respective ranks should command. The letter
ends with a personal relating of a miraculous vision of a certain Carpos
illustrating the mercifulness of Jesus.
Letter 9 To Titus, Hierarch- A question concerning
the symbolism of the mixing bowl and food and drink as spiritual nourishment
is dealt with.
Letter 10 To John the theologian- In this letter,
words of comfort and support to an exiled apostle are conveyed.
4. The Dionysian Influence
The Dionysian corpus has had an wide influence on various aspects of
Christian thought. The following list is divided into three general currents
of influence: philosophy, mysticism and occultism. By no means comprehensive,
this list aims to simply give a general overview of some prominent thinkers
in the Christian Platonist tradition. The three categories are very general
and the categorization loose, as many people on this list could easily
overlap into several categories.
a. Philosophy
Maximus Confessor (580 - 662), Alcuin (730 - 806), John Scotus Eriugena
(fl. 850), Michael Psellus (1018 - 1096), Hugh of St-Victor (+1141), Richard
of St-Victor (+1173), Thomas Aquinas (1125 - 1274), Thiery of Chartres
(fl. 1142 -1150), Robert Grosseteste (1175 - ca. 1225?) Bonaventure (1221
- 1274), Gemisthos Plethon (ca. 1370? - 1450), Nicholas of Cusa (1401 -
1464), Denis the Carthusian (1402 - 1471), Marsilio Ficino (1433 - 1499),
Lefebvre d'Etaples (1436 -1520), Thomas Vaughan (1622 - 1666).
b. Mysticism
Bernard of Clairvaux (1091 -1153), Hildegarde of Bingen (1098 - 1179),
Jacopone da Todi (1128 - 1306), Meister Eckhart (1260 - 1327), John
Tauler (1300 -1361), Henry Suso (ca. 1295 - 1365), John Ruysbroeck (1293
- 1381), Henry de Mayle (ca. 1360 - 1415), Catherine of Sienna (1347 -1380),
Jean Gerson (1363 - 1409), Francisco de Orsuna (+1540), Teresa of Avila
(1515 - 1582), John of the Cross (1515 - 1582), Augustine Baker (1575 -1641),
unknown author of the Cloud of Unknowing (ca. 1350 - 1395)
c. Occultism (Esoteric traditions of Alchemy, Hermetism, Kabbalah)
Albert the Great (1206 - 1240), Roger Bacon (1210/14 - ca. 1292), Dante
(1265 - 1321), Ramon Lully (1232 - 1316?), Johannes Reuchlin (1455 -1522),
Johannes Trithemius (1462 -1516), Pico de la Mirandola (1463 - 1494), Francesco
Giorgi (1466 -1540), Cornelius Agrippa (1486 - 1534), John Dee (1537
-1608), Giordano Bruno (1548 - 1600), Robert Fludd (1574-1637) Jacob Boehme
(1575 - 1624), William Law (1686 -1761), Eckhartausen (1752 -1803), Louis-Claude
de St-Martin (1743 -1803), William Blake (1757 -1827).
5. Bibliography
Dillon, John, The Middle Platonists, Duckworth, Great Britain,
1977.
Ferguson, Everett (ed.), Encyclopedia of Early Christianity,
Garland Publishing, New York, 1990.
Finan, Thomas; Twaney, Vincent (eds.), The Relationship between Neoplatonism
and Christianity, Four Courts Press, Dublin, 1992.
Luibheid, Colm (transl.), Pseudo-Dionysius: The Complete Works,
Paulist Press (Classics of Western Spirituality), New York, 1987.
Livraga, Jorge Angel, Manuel d'Introduction aux philosophies d'orient
et d'occident, Nouvelle Acropole, France.
O'Leary, Dominic J., Neoplatonism and Christian Thought, State
University Press, New York, 1982.
Underhill, Evelyn, Mysticism, Meridian, Noonday Press, New-York,
1955.
Yates, Frances A., Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition,
Routledge and Kegan Paul, London. 1964.
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