GREAT ISSUES OF PHILOSOPHY ILLUSTRATED
Short Outline
5/30/2008
Please note that this is an extremely abbreviated outline of the text material, and contains little more information than the contents list of headings and subheadings. Test questions will be based on more detailed information than appears here. You may wish to use this outline as the starting point for a more detailed one of your own devising.
THE MEANING OF LIFE
Introduction
Monty Python example
Different questions surrounding life’s meaning
A. Life’s Chronic Ailments
Gilgamesh and Death
Gilgamesh story
Two morals of the story
Heidegger’s view of death
Criticisms of Heidegger
Sisyphus and Futility
Sisyphus story
Examples of futility in life
Camus’s view of Sisyphus
Criticism of Camus
Job and Suffering
Job story
Unprovoked and unresolved suffering
Solution in the book of Job
Criticism of that solution
B. Ancient Greek Solutions
Epicureanism and Pleasure
Example of Jack the Epicurean English professor
Epicurus’s view of pleasure
Mental vs. physical pleasures
Luxuries
Short term vs. long term pleasures
Criticism of Epicureanism
Epicurus’s final view of happiness
Stoicism and Accepting Fate
Example of prisoner of war
Epictetus’s “banquet” analogy
Criticism of Stoic solution
Skepticism and Doubt
Example of Skeptics Society and Roswell aliens
Pyrrho’s view of skeptical tranquility
Two criticisms of skeptic solution
Cynicism and Defying Convention
Example of Lollapalooza
Diogenes view of Cynicism
Three criticisms of Cynic solution
C. Western Religious Solutions
Having Children
Example of Abraham
Natural rewards of having children
Two criticisms of the having children solution
Life after Death
Two conceptions of life after death
Solution to death, futility, and suffering
Two criticisms of life after death solution
Furthering God’s Kingdom
Augustine’s two cities
Mormon example
Three features of furthering God’s Kingdom solution
Criticism of furthering God’s Kingdom solution
D. Eastern Religious Solutions
Daoism and the Way of Nature
Tale of the cook
Daoist approach to life
Daoist solution to life’s problems
Criticism of Daoist solution
Buddhism and Extinguishing Desire
Four Noble Truths
Nirvana
Dalai Lama’s view of nirvana
Criticism of Buddhist solution
Hinduism and the Four Goals of Life
Four goals of life
Problem with most discussions of life’s meaning
Benefits of multi-solution approach to life’s meaning
F. Conclusion
Meaning of life involves various philosophical questions
Philosophy involves criticisms
Different ways of addressing philosophical issues
GOD
Introduction
Elvis Underground
A. The Nature of God
Personalness and Goodness
Example of Elvis creed
The Theistic God
Attribute of personalness
Problem of anthropomorphism
Attribute of perfect goodness (omnibenevolence)
Compassion
Justness
God’s gender
Power and Separateness
Attribute of all-powerfulness (omnipotence)
First view of all-powerfulness
Dilemma of the rock
Second view of all-powerfulness
Attribute of separateness
Separateness
Pantheism
B. Arguments for God’s Existence
The Cosmological Argument
Leibniz’s cosmological argument
Hume’s criticism
The Design Argument from Analogy
Argument from analogy
Problem with premise 1
Problem with premise 2
Final problem (Hume)
The Design Argument from Probability
Argument from probability
Criticism
Emotional appeal of the probability argument
The Ontological Argument
Anselm’s argument
Gaunilo’s criticism
C. Criticisms of Religious Belief
Belief in Miracles
Kenyan minister example
Hume’s three assumptions about miracles
Hume’s argument against miracles
First criticism regarding scientific discoveries
Second criticism regarding “reasonable belief”
Psychological Theories of Religion
Lucretius
Marx
Nietzsche
Freud
Point in common
Believer’s response
D. The Problem of Evil
Introduction
Two kinds of evil
The Argument
“Clear paths” to resolving the tension
Possible Solutions.
Good comes out of evil
Criticism
Re-examine divine goodness
Criticism
Suffering part of development (Hick)
Criticism
The Free Will Defense
First limitation
Second limitation
Third limitation
E. Faith and Reason
Introduction
“Faith alone” position
Blaise Pascal: Wagering on Belief in God
Next steps in the belief process
James’s criticism
William James: The Right to Believe in God
Three features of a “genuine option”
When religious belief is justified
Criticism by scientifically-minded person
Alvin Plantinga: Rationally-Foundational Belief in God
Believing God exists vs. knowing God exists
Foundationalism
“God exists” is a rationally-foundational belief
Criticism
F. Religious Pluralism
Introduction
Doctrinal claims vs. effective paths to salvation
Four Options
Naturalism
Exclusivism
Inclusivism
Pluralism
The Problem of Conflicting Doctrines
The problem
First response
Second response (Hick’s)
The Problem of God’s Inaccessibility
The problem
Pluralist response to dilemma
Religion’s two main ingredients (James)
MIND
Introduction
Cryonics example
A. What is a Mind?
Knowledge about the Mind
Introspection
Behavior
Popular psychological theories
Consciousness
Self-awareness
Unconsciousness
Three Features of Mental Experiences
Privateness
Non-localizability
Intentionality
Problem of Other Minds
The problem
Solution from analogy
Limitations of the solution from analogy
B. Personal identity
Introduction
Sirhan Sirhan example
The Body Criterion
Definition
Examples
Counterexample 1
Counterexample 2
The Mind Criterion
Definition
Examples
Obstacle 1
Obstacle 2
Different criteria for different needs
Life after Death
Reincarnation
Criticism
Ethereal body
Criticism
Disembodied spirit
C. Varieties of Mind-Body Dualism
Introduction
Definition of mind-body problem
Definition of mind-body dualism
Definition of mind-body materialism
Dualism's Assets and Liabilities
Example of near death experience
Argument from non-localizability
Main problem with dualism
Sensory perception and bodily movement
Interactive dualism
Pineal gland theory (Descartes)
Description of theory
Problem 1
Problem 2
God shuttles information back and forth (Malebranche)
Description of theory
Problem 1
Gradualism (Conway)
Description of theory
Problem 1
Parallelism
Parallelism defined
Leibniz's theory
Problem 1
Problem 2
D. Varieties of Mind-Body Materialism
Behaviorism
ATM machine example
Definition of behaviorism
Ryle's "ghost in the machine" criticism of Descartes
Criticism 1
Identity Theory
Definition of identity theory
Two parts of identity theory
Problem 1
Problem 2
Eliminative Materialism
Definition of eliminative materialism
Pre-scientific theories
Two parts of eliminative materialism
Functionalism
Star Trek example
Definition of functionalism
Hierarchical model of mental functions
Criticism 1
E. Artificial Intelligence
Introduction
Elektro example
The Road to Artificial Intelligence
Two types of artificial
Weak
Strong
Turing test
Two kinds of computing processes
Serial
Parallel
Searle: The Chinese Room
Description of example
Point of example
Criticism 1
Artificial Intelligence and Morality
Star Trek example
Question of moral personhood
Different criteria of moral personhood
Question of preventing malevolent robots
Two issues
FREE WILL AND DETERMINISM
Introduction
Acxiom example
A. Main Concepts
Definition of free will
Definition of determinism
Issue of political freedom
Issue of fatalism
Types of "choices"
B. The Case for Determinism
Basic point underlying determinism
Argument for determinism from materialism
Dualist’s criticism
Argument for determinism from predictability
C. The Case for Free Will
Feeling of freedom
Hypnotism counterexample
Recent psychological experiment counterexample
Moral responsibility
Argument from moral responsibility
Determinist's response
Human dignity
Determinist's response
Subatomic indeterminacy argument
Problem 1
Problem 2
D. The Freedom of Action Alternative
Definition of free action
First explanation of free and unfree actions
Frankfurt's explanation of free and unfree actions
First and second order desires
Human vs. animal choices
E. Free Will and God
Determinism and Divine Goodness
Argument for God’s responsibility for human evil
Free will solution
Free Will and Divine Foreknowledge
The argument against free will from divine foreknowledge
Solution: two notions of timelessness
KNOWLEDGE
Introduction
Heaven's Gate example
Epistemology
Procedural knowledge and propositional knowledge
A. Skepticism
Introduction
Philosophical skepticism
Radical Skepticism
Local skepticism vs. radical skepticism
Pyrrhonian skepticism
Human Skepticism
Cartesian Skepticism
Criticisms of Radical Skepticism
I know one truth: I exist
Skeptic's response:
Can't live as skeptics in our normal lives
Skeptic's response:
Radical skepticism is self-refuting
Skeptic's response:
Radical skepticism has an unrealistically high standard of knowledge
Skeptic's response:
B. Sources of Knowledge
Introduction
Definitions of experiential and non-experiential knowledge
Experiential Knowledge
Perception
Limitations:
Introspection
Limitations:
Memory
Limitations:
Testimony
Limitations:
ESP
Limitations:
Religious experience
Limitations:
Non-Experiential Knowledge
Math and logic examples
Necessity
Analyticity
Rationalism and Empiricism
Rationalism
Innate ideas
Deductive reasoning
Empiricism
No innate ideas
Inductive reasoning
Kant
Kant's solution
Rationalist and empiricist components
C. The Definition of Knowledge
Introduction
JTB definition of knowledge
Justified True Belief
Truth
Possible counter-instance and criticism of this
Belief
Possible counter-instance and criticism of this
Justification
Possible counter-instance and criticism of this
The Gettier Problem
Point of Gettier's argument
Red ball example
Indefeasibility solution
D. Truth, Justification and Relativism
Theories of Truth
Correspondence theory
Criticism
Coherence theory
Criticism
Deflationary theory
Theories of Justification
Foundationalism
Criticism
Coherentism
Criticism
Reliabilism
Clock metaphor
What’s so Bad about Relativism?
Acceptable types of relativism
Etiquette relativism
Aesthetic relativism
Perceptual relativism
Controversial types of relativism
Truth relativism
Justification relativism
Criticism of truth and justification relativism
Nietzsche’s response (Nietzsche)
E. Scientific Knowledge
Confirming Theories
Three scientific concepts
Scientific hypothesis
Scientific theory
Scientific law
Types of confirmation
Simplicity
Unification
Successful prediction
Falsifiability
Scientific Revolutions
Scientific revolution
Paradigm shifts (Kuhn)
Criticism of Kuhn
ETHICS
Introduction
California bank robbers
A. Moral Relativism
Plato: Objective Moral Forms
Three features of moral objectivism
Three features of moral relativism
Plato’s theory of the forms
Skepticism: Cultural Variation
Sextus Empiricus, examples of moral diversity
Argument from cultural variation
Objectivist response to premise 1
Objectivist response to premise 2
The Moderate Compromise
Compromise 1
Compromise 2
B. Selfishness
Introduction
Example of postman
Definition of psychological egoism
Definition of psychological altruism
Ought implies can
Hobbes: The Case for Egoism
Pity
Charity
Argument from simplicity
Butler: The Case for Altruism
Different self-oriented motives
Instinctive benevolence
Egoism and the Struggle for Survival
Evolution and selfishness
Kin selection
Reciprocal altruism (Wilson)
C. Reason and Emotion
Introduction
PETA
Moral Reasoning: Detecting Truth and Motivating Behavior
Two principles of moral reasoning
Hume: We Can’t Derive Ought from Is
Criticism of principle 1
Criticism of principle 2
Cannot derive ought from is
Ayer: Moral Utterances Express Feelings
Factual reports
Nonfactual expressions
Emotivism
D. Virtues
Introduction
Definition of virtue and vice
Aristotle: The Virtuous Mean
Animalistic and rational elements of people
Mean between extremes
Examples
Virtues and Gender
Psychological distinction between men and women
Virtue theory and feminist ethics (three points)
Gilligan’s view of care
Virtues and Rules
Argument from misused virtues
Argument from hidden mental habits
Two conclusions about virtue and rules
E. Duties
Pufendorf: Duties to God, Oneself and Others
Instinctive duties
Duties to God, oneself and others
Kant: The Categorical Imperative
Hypothetical imperatives vs. categorical imperatives
The categorical imperative principle
Intrinsic vs. instrumental value
Duties to Animals and the Environment
Direct vs. indirect duties
Kant and indirect duties to animals
Self-awareness criterion of moral
Indirect duties to the environment
Direct duties to the environment
F. Utilitarianism
Introduction
Problem with duty theory
Utilitarianism defined
Bentham: The Utilitarian Calculus
Seven factors
Mill: Higher Pleasures and Rules
Criticism of Bentham’s view of quantified pleasures
Criticism of Bentham’s act utilitarianism
Mill’s rule utilitarianism
Solving moral dilemmas
Reactions from Duty Theorists
Criticism 1 of utilitarianism
Criticism 2 of utilitarianism
POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY
Introduction
Interim Government of the Republic of Texas
A. The Social Contract
Hobbes’s Theory
Two factors of the state of nature
First law of nature
Second law of nature
Third law of nature
Need for government
The Prisoner’s Dilemma
Example of me and Joe
Application to social contract theory
Social Contracts and Bigotry
Animals and minorities
Potential domination of bigots
B. Rights
Introduction
Freedom from harm
Freedom to act
Legal rights vs. natural rights
Three features of natural rights
Natural Rights and Revolution
Locke’s state of nature
Locke’s list of rights
Justification for revolution
Are Natural Rights Grounded in Fact?
Bentham’s criticism of natural rights
Universal declaration of human rights
Do We Need Rights?
Correlativity of rights and duties
Sufficiency of duties
The added element of rights
C. Political Liberalism and Property
Introduction
Political liberalism defined
Distributive justice defined
Nozick and Libertarianism
Libertarianism defined
Argument for minimalist state
Two principles of entitlement theory
Libertarian solution to poverty (three prongs)
Practical problem with libertarianism
Rawls and Welfare Liberalism
Natural lottery
Original position
Veil of ignorance
Two principles of justice
Criticism: rational gamblers
D. Individual and Community
Introduction
Antz movie example
Individualistic vs. community-oriented theories
Plato’s Republic
Community as a giant human being
Three groups of people
Noble lie
Orwell’s 1984
Marx and Communism
Historical materialism
Class struggle
Alienated labor
Communist revolution
Criticism of communism
Species-being
E. Governmental Coercion
Introduction
Three examples
Four Justifications
Harm principle
Offense principle
Legal paternalism
Legal moralism
Mill’s Principle of Liberty and Harm
Mill’s principle of liberty
Rejection of principles of offense, paternalism and moralism
Happy society argument for liberty
Social contract argument for liberty
Defense of legal paternalism
F. War
Introduction
War of Texan freedom example
Just War Theory
Initially waging war (jus ad bellum)
Just cause
Right intention
Proper authority
Reasonable success
Conducting war (jus in bello)
Discrimination
Proportionality
Pacifism
Types of pacifism
Absolute pacifism
Conditional pacifism
Religious justifications for pacifism
Secular justifications
Cost/benefit analysis
Killing innocent people
Free rider criticism
Pacifist response