SPINOZA
A. KEY ARGUMENT FOR PANTHEISM
1. Propositions:
Proposition 5. There cannot exist in the universe two or more substances having the same nature or attribute.
Proposition 11: God (defined as a substance consisting of infinite attributes, of which each expresses eternal and infinite essentiality) necessarily exists.
Therefore, Proposition 14: Besides God, no substance can be granted or conceived.
2. Intuition:
a. Imagine an infinitely long list of qualities such as "consciousness" and "three-dimensionality."
b. Each attribute on this list can be assigned to only one substance or thing.
Substance 1 might exclusively have the attribute of "consciousness," and substance 2 might exclusively have the attribute of "three-dimensionality."
c. However, God has already been assigned all attributes on the list, and no attributes are left to assign to other substances.
d. Since a substance can't exist if it doesn't have any attributes, then God is the only substance which exists.
3. Definitions and Axioms
a. Substance: that which exists through itself
Turns out to be God, and the universe
b. Attribute: an all encompassing attribute of the universe
e.g. consciousness, three-dimensionality
God has an infinite number of attributes, but humans can only conceive of two: consciousness and three-dimenionality
c. Mode: an attribute as it appears on a smaller level (a mini attribute)
e.g. human shape, human consciousness; material shape, material consciousness(?)
4. Proof of proposition 5: that two substances cannot share the same attribute
a. The only way to distinguish different substances is if they have different attributes or modes
b. If they only have the same attributes, then they are the same
c. Suppose, though that they have the same attributes, but with different modifications
e.g. suppose there were two universes in which both were three-dimensional (i.e. same attribute) but one had trees and the other did not (i.e. differing modes)
d. These differences in modification are not relevant
A substance has its own identity before it is modified (that is, the universe is what it is before it has trees or not)
Thus, the only properties which truly distinguish one substance from another are broad attributes, not narrow modes.
e. Thus, if two universes have precisely the same attributes, then they are the same universe.
5. God's Existence
a. Prop 7: Existence belongs to the nature of substance
Crit: We see natural objects such as trees come into and go out of existence, and we assume that substances also come into and go out of existence
Reply: we would not make this confusion if we kept in mind the difference between modes and substances
Modes, such as properties of trees, do indeed come and go out of existence
Substances and modes differ in how we conceive of them
Substance is conceived through itself
Mode is conceived by conceiving of the thing in which it exists
We can conceive of non-existent modes (e.g. unicorns) but not non-existent substances
b. Mini proof: there can only be one substance
Objects which exist in multiplicity (e.g. twenty people) require an external explanation for why they exist in precisely the number that they do
That explanation is found in a substance
Substances exists (Proposition 7)
Nothing in its definition implies multiplicity
Therefore, there can only be one substance
c. Absolutely infinite substance has infinite attributes
Each of which must be conceived through itself
d. Proof of God
(a) The idea of God is that of substance with infinite attributes, each of which is eternally and infinitely essential (Def. 6)
(b) Suppose that God does not exist
(c) Then existence is not part of his essence
(d) However, existence belongs to the nature of a substance
(e) Therefore, God exists
e. Gives three additional proofs, all rest on the notion that God's existence follows from his nature
6. God is the only Substance
a. Proof
Proposition 5. There cannot exist in the universe two or more substances having the same nature or attribute.
Proposition 11: God (defined as a substance consisting of infinite attributes, of which each expresses eternal and infinite essentiality) necessarily exists.
Therefore, Proposition 14: Besides God, no substance can be granted or conceived.
7. Nature of God's body
a. In some sense God has a physical body
If all things are part of God, then the three-dimensional universe itself is part of God
b. Some philosophers give anthropomorphized accounts of God's body
It is finite, and God has emotions (since human emotions are based on our body)
Crit: extended substance is one of God's infinite attributes
c. Those who deny that God has any body
There are absurdities involved when we consider quantity to be infinite
e.g. one foot has twelve times the infinite number of points that one inch does
God is active, and divided matter is passive
Crit: the key error in all of these arguments is the assumption that extended substance is composed of parts
The notion of extended substance must be drawn from the more foundational notion of infinite quality
Infinite quality cannot be measured
A. APPENDIX
1. Why people think that God acts with a purpose
a. Individual humans do not act freely, but are under the illusion that they do
We are ignorant of the true causes of things, but only aware of our own desire to pursue what is useful us
Thus, we think we are free and that all our actions are guided by what is useful to us
b. We impose willful purposes on events outside of us
We conclude that God willfully guides external events for our benefit (since we cannot guide it ourselves)
Superstitions arose as humans devised their own ways of worshiping God
c. Natural disasters conflict with the view that God acts with a purpose
We then say that God's judgment transcends human understanding
d. Mathematics offers a standard of truth which refutes the view that God acts with a purpose
2. God does not act from a purpose
a. The concept of a perfect final goal is flawed
The most perfect of God's acts are those closest to him
Succeeding events further down the chain are more imperfect
Thus if a given chain of events culminated in sunny weather, for example, that would be less perfect than the initial events in the chain
b. Belief in final causes compromises God's perfection
Implies that he desires something which he lacks
c. Such theologians offer a reduction to ignorance
All natural events trace back to God's will, and we are all ignorant of God's will
Theologians insist on this path of ignorance since it preserves their authority
3. Belief in God's willful purposes distorts value judgments
a. Traditional theologians believe that values are objective abstract notions imposed on nature by God for our benefit
e.g. objective foundation of goodness is that which is conducive to the worship of God
b. Spinoza contends that all of these value judgments in fact arise out of our own human psychological and physiological construction
e.g. things are well-ordered when they require little imagination and are easily remembered
So too with beauty, fragrance, and harmony
c. The variety of controversies we have arise from our differing human constructions
Q: Why did God create us in such a way that values are based on human construction, rather than reason?
A: Because he could figure out an alternative way and had the material to do it