POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY

Introduction

Example of Interim Government of the Republic of Texas

Goal of political philosophy: what kinds of political systems will make us most happy in the present state of affairs

A. The Social Contract

Introduction

Example of Interim Government of the Republic of Texas

Definition of Social Contract Theory: preserve our individual lives, we mutually agree to set aside our hostilities and live in peace under governmental protection

Hobbes’s Theory

Two factors of the state of nature

Life’s necessities are scarce, which creates competition

We are naturally selfish and thus not inclined to make sacrifices for others in need

First law of nature: we should seek peace as a means of self-preservation

Second law of nature: we should mutually divest ourselves of hostile rights

Third law of nature: we should indeed keep the agreements that we make

Need for government: strong policing powers and the authority to penalize contract breakers

The Prisoner’s Dilemma

Example of me and Joe (four options)

If I confess and Joe does not, then I will get only a 1 year sentence, but Joe will get a 10 year sentence.

If Joe confesses and I do not, then Joe will only get a 1 year sentence, but I will get a 10 year sentence.

If neither of us confesses, then we will each get a 2 year sentence.

If both of us confess, then we will each get a 5 year sentence.

Application to social contract theory

In the state of nature, we can’t read the minds of potential rivals and thus will be inclined to preemptively attack them

Social Contracts and Bigotry

Social contract is an exclusive club whose membership is not necessarily open to everyone, e.g., animals and bigots

Potential domination of bigots: weaker groups may be forced to join in a second-class status, or risk continued war

B. Rights

Introduction

Hooters example

Two kinds of freedom/liberty rights

Rights to be free from harm

Rights to be freedom to act

Two origins of rights

Legal rights: created by governments

Natural rights: not created by governments

Three features of natural rights

Natural: we are born with them

Universal: all humans world wide possess them

Equal: every person regardless of race or gender has them to the same degree

Natural Rights and Revolution

Locke’s state of nature

We have God-given natural rights in the state of nature

Fundamental rights are those to life, health, liberty and possessions

Forfeiture: we forfeit our rights when we violate the rights of others

Governments: we give the ruler power and authority over us, in exchange for which the ruler protects our natural rights

Justification for revolution: if our government fails in its task, then we can remove it and create another

Are Natural Rights Grounded in Fact?

Bentham’s criticism of natural rights

All rights are the result of laws that are created by legislators

Legal rights are grounded in legal laws created by human legislators

Natural rights are supposedly grounded in natural laws created by God

Problem: we cannot access natural law or God

Recommendation: reject natural rights, stick to legal rights

U.N. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)

Abandons notion of natural rights and relies instead on universal agreement among member nations

Do We Need Rights?

Sufficiency of duties

Correlativity of rights and duties: the rights of one person implies the duties of another

Having both rights and duties is redundant; the notion of duties is more fundamental, thus we can do away with rights

The added element of rights

Claims about my rights seem more imposing than claims about your duties

C. Political Liberalism and Property

Introduction

Political liberalism defined: governments exist mainly to protect individual rights

Locke’s view of property: we acquire property by mixing it with our labor; we can keep it or sell it as we see fit

Distributive justice defined: determining the just way of distributing wealth and poverty in a society

Nozick and Libertarianism

Libertarianism defined: governmental power should be limited to a few basic policing functions

Governments shouldn’t pay for welfare programs

Argument for minimalist state:

The existence of dominant protection agencies is reasonable and expected; anything much beyond that is not justifiable

Two principles of entitlement theory

We must initially acquire property by just means

We must voluntarily transfer that property to another person by just means

Taxation for welfare is unjustified – like forced labor

Libertarian solution to poverty (three prongs)

A truly free enterprise economy will create jobs

Voluntary unemployment insurance

Voluntary donations to charities

Practical problem with libertarianism

It makes sense for the government to also protect us from economic disaster, especially when it isn’t our fault

Libertarian notions of property ownership are not fair (see welfare liberalism)

Rawls and Welfare Liberalism

Welfare liberalism defined: to address unfair distributions in wealth, the government may tax us to help the needy.

Natural lottery: wealth is arbitrary distributed in society based on who one’s parents are

Original position: a group of rational, yet self-interested people who gather together to work out the rules of a peaceful society

Veil of ignorance: discuss the rules while assuming ignorance regarding our actual social status is in society

Two principles of justice

First: each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a similar liberty for others.

Second: social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both (a) reasonably expected to be to everyone’s advantage, and (b) attached to positions and offices open to all.

Rawls and welfare (principle 2a): reasonable people will want a lot of economic protection and be willing to place a hefty limit the wealthy.

Criticism: rational gamblers

People might gamble on a scheme that will allow me the greatest financial reward, even at risk of impoverishment

Response: people tend to hedge their bets (e.g., insurance) and might do so in the veil of ignorance

D. Individual and Community

Introduction

Antz movie example

Individualist political theories: personal liberty is of primary importance, and governments exist to protect us from harms inflicted by others in the community

Community-oriented theories: humans are first and foremost part of a community, and the governments we create should reflect that fact

Plato’s Republic

Communal lifestyle of the Guardian class

No property, communal housing, free love, censored music and literature

Community as a giant human being

To protect us from outside attack, all parts of a government must work together like all the parts of a giant human being

Three groups of people

Trades-people: provide for people’s basic needs of society (farmers, carpenters, clothiers, merchants)

Guardians who protect society from outside attackers

Rulers decide the best course for society (selected from the best guardians)

Noble lie

Trick people into thinking that they are naturally assigned their places in the social hierarchy, and thus should be content in their current status

Trades-people made with iron and brass; guardians with silver, rulers with gold

Orwell’s 1984

Community-oriented societies risk staying together only through governmental lies, intimidation, and brainwashing

Marx and Communism

Historical materialism

Everything is composed of matter and all events mechanically unfold according to rigid laws; human history emerges predictably through economic forces

Class struggle

Throughout history societies have evolved through conflict between social classes

Masters-slaves; nobles-serfs (eventually creates middleclass); capitalists-workers (eventually creates communism)

Alienated labor

We create our identities through labor and, by giving away our labor to the industrialist for cheap wages, workers lose their identities

Communist revolution

Workers will launch a communist revolution to end their oppressive conditions, the aim of which is to abolish private property

Criticism of communism

Personal greed is an important element of social progress

Marx: our more evolved human nature (species-being) and prompts us to see ourselves as part of a collective whole

E. Governmental Coercion

Introduction

Three examples: low-riding pants, lawyer jokes, offensive bumper sticker

Coercive nature of governments: to keep the peace, governments must set boundaries and punish offenders

Four Justifications

Harm principle: governments may restrict our conduct when it harms other people

Injury must be serious, not trivial

Offense principle: governments may keep us from offending others

Must be unavoidable and involve outrage; cannot be mere nuisances

Legal paternalism: governments should prevent people from harming themselves (e.g., dangerous sports)

Legal moralism: governments may restrict conduct that is especially sinful or immoral (e.g., religious blasphemy, some sex acts)

Mill’s Principle of Liberty and Harm

Mill’s principle of liberty

Individual liberty should only be restricted when our actions harm others, but not when they simply harm ourselves

Rejection of principles of offense, paternalism and moralism

Happy society argument for liberty: a wide sphere of personal liberty is essential for a happy society

Social contract argument for liberty:

To attain peace, all that we really need to do is mutually agree to avoid harming each other

The principles of offense, paternalism and moralism are not needed to maintain peace

Defense of legal paternalism

Society might be happier and my life will be safer if the government paternalistically protects us from our most stupid and harmful acts against ourselves

F. War

Introduction

War of Texan Freedom example

Just War Theory

Initially waging war (jus ad bellum)

Just cause: e.g., resisting serious aggression

Right intention: e.g., returning to the state of peace prior to an outside

Wrong intentions: nationalism, acquire land, plunder the resources of another country, vengeance, vent racial hatred

Proper authority: the war must be publicly announced by the legitimate authority and made known to the enemy

Reasonable success: it is wrong to sacrifice human lives and squander economic resources if the outcome of a war is unlikely

Conducting war (jus in bello)

Discrimination: both sides of the conflict must identify legitimate targets

Can’t target civilians in residential neighborhoods

Proportionality: should only use the amount of force that is required to achieve their goal

Weapons of mass destruction typically go beyond the goal

Pacifism

Types of pacifism

Absolute pacifism: all wars, with no exception, are wrong

Conditional pacifism: wars are wrong in principle but some are permissible in extreme emergencies

Religious justifications for pacifism

War is contrary to religious teachings

Limitations: only for believers who adopt a specifically pacifistic understanding of their faith

Secular justifications

Cost/benefit analysis: benefits of war never outweigh their costs – particularly in modern warfare

Problem: with quick and limited wars, sometimes the benefits outweigh the costs

Killing innocent people: war violates our foundational duty to avoid killing innocent people

Free rider criticism: pacifist themselves enjoy the benefits of a protected society without participating in its defense

Pacifist response: pacifists are forced to live in a society controlled by warmongers who continually reject more peaceful solutions