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Amida: The most famous of the Celestial Buddhas in Mahayana Buddhism, who instituted a heavenly Buddha-Land called the Pure Land.
Analects (Lun Yu): Literally "digested conversations," the most reliable of all collections of Confucius's teachings, and one of the Four Books (shu) of Confucianism; the principal themes include humanity (jen), social custom (li), the superior person (chun-tzu), filial obedience (hsiao), the rectification of names (cheng ming), and good government.
Arhat: Literally "the worthy," Theravada Buddhist term referring to the ideal Buddhist who devotes himself full time to his individual achievement of nirvana.
Aryan: Light skinned migrating people, perhaps from Europe, who settled in India around 1500 BCE and instituted Vedic Hinduism.
Asoka: 3rd century king of India's Mauryan Dynasty who converted to Buddhism and helped its advance.
Asvaghosa: (1) 2nd century CE author of the Life of Buddha (Buddhacarita); (2) 5th century CE author of the Awakening of Faith (Sraddhotpada-sastra).
Atman-Brhaman: The notion of the Self-God in Brahmanic and Vedanta Hinduism which maintains that our true inner self is identical to the all pervasive God.
Awakening of Faith (Sraddhotpada-sastra): Mahayana Buddhist text of the 5th or 6th centuries CE by an otherwise unknown figure named Asvaghosha; the work which emphasizes ultimate reality as suchness (tathata).
Bhagavad Gita: Literally song of God, short philosophical dialog within the Hindu Mahabharata epic which discusses the Atman-Brahman and the ways of achieving liberation.
Bhagavata Purana: Most famous of the 18 major Puranas of Bhakti Hinduism; focusing on Krishna/Vishnu, the work synthesizes various Hindu traditions and presents a theistic version of monistic Vedanta.
Bhakti Hinduism: Devotional movement within Hinduism beginning around 300 CE which emphasizes the gods of the Trimurti.
Bodhisattva: Literally "enlightened being", ideal saint in Mahayana Buddhism who postpones his own enlightenment to assist others on their spiritual journey.
Brahma: Creator God of the Trimurti in Bhakti Hinduism.
Brahman: Hindu notion of the all-pervasive God who is identical to the self within us, especially as described in the Upanishads and Vedanta.
brahman: The notion of sacrificial power in Vedic Hinduism which was controlled by priests.
Brahmanism: Reform movement within Hinduism from 1000 BCE to 300 CE which de-emphasizes priestly sacrificial rites and emphasizes the notion of the Atman-Brahman (Self-God).
Brahmin: Priestly caste of people in Hinduism's caste system.
Buddha: literally "englightened one," Buddhist term which variously refers to Gautama Siddhartha, or any enlightened person. In Mahayana Buddhism the term may denote, an enlightened person who is a step higher than the Bodhisattva, a celestial Buddha, or ultimate reality itself.
Buddhaghosa: fourth century CE Buddhist philosopher and author of The Path of Purity (Visuddhimagga), among the most important texts in Theravada Buddhism written after the Pali Canon.
Buddha-Lands: In Mahayana Buddhism, heavenly realms instituted by Celestial Buddhas to which the devoted go after death; the most famous Pure Land is that of the Amida.
Buddha-Nature (buddhata): In Mahayana Buddhism, undifferientiated absolute existence behind all appearances, functionally the same as nirvana, emptiness, suchness, and the Eternal Buddha.
Buddhi: "Intellect"; in Samkya Hinduism buddhi is the first and most important manifestation of prakriti (physical nature).
Buddhism: Religion founded in India by Gautama Siddhartha (563-483 BCE) which stresses the four noble truths; Buddhism's main two main divisions are the Theravada and Mahayana schools.
Caste System (jati): Hereditary and hierarchical structuring of social groups within Hinduism traditionally including four castes (varnas): Priests (Brahmins), warriors (Ksatriyas), artisans (Vaisyas), and servants (Sudras).
Celestial Bodhisattva (mahasattvas): In Mahayana Buddhism, a heavenly or god-like Bodhisattva, similar to (and perhaps one step under) the Celestial Buddhas, the most famous of which is Avalokitesvara; showing devotion to Celestial Bodhisattvas results in them assisting us in our quest for enlightenment.
Celestial Buddha (sambhogakaya): in Mahayana Buddhism's Triple Body (trikaya) theory, these are heavenly or god-like Buddhas, the most famous of which is Amita; by showing devotion to Celestial Buddhas they assist us in our quest for enlightenment.
Celestial Masters: Sect of Religious Taoism formed by Chang Tao Ling in the 2nd century CE which holds that divine rulers reward and punish us based on our good and evil actions.
Ch'an: School of Chinese Mahayana Buddhism (Zen in Japan), founded by a legendary figure named Bodhidharma (470-543 CE), the key philosophical text of which is the Platform Sutra of Hui-neng; all sub-schools of Ch'an emphasize experience over doctrine, and the practice of seated meditation. The Rinsai school also emphasizes the koan system.
Ch'i: literally "breath," important philosophical term of varied meaning throughout Chinese history; early Chinese writings see it as a physiological principle of vital energy, whereas Neo-Confucian writers such as Chu Hsi see it as a metaphysical principal of material force in contrast with structural form (li).
Chou Tun-i (1017-1073): Founder of Neo-Confucianism whose short work Explanation on the Diagram of the Great Ultimate describes how all things emerged from the Great Ultimate by means of its yang activity and yin inactivity.
Chu Hsi (1130-1200): Most influential Neo-Confucian philosopher whose interpretation of Confucianism became the standard view until the 20th century; for Chu, the "investigation of things" involves knowledge of the structural form (li) of the universe, as distinct from the material force of the universt (ch'i).
Chuang-Tzu (369-286 BCE): Second of the great Taoist philosophers, attributed with composing the first portion of the text titled the Chuang-Tzu; using colorful stories, the text describes the notions of the Tao, non-action, non-mind, transformation, and freedom artificial social constraints.
Citta: "Ordinary consciousness" in Hindu Yoga, as contrasted with purusha (our inner transcendent self).
Confucianism: Religious and philosophical system of China based on the teachings of Confucius which emphasizes social values such as filial obedience, custom, and governing by way of example.
Confucius (551-479 BCE): Latinized name for Kung Fu-tzu, Chinese founder of Confucianism whose sayings are preserved in the Analects.
Darsanas: Formal systems of emancipation in Hinduism from the 7th century CE and on; the six traditional schools are, Samkya, Nyaya, Vaisesika, Mimamsa, Yoga, and Vedanta.
Dependent Origin (paticca-samuppada): Buddhist doctrine that everything that occurs in the world is the result of prior causes. All mental events, appearances, and external events arise from previous events. The various causal chains culminate in suffering (dukkha). Only nirvana is not subject to such causal interactions.
Desire (tanha, trishna): Second noble truth of Buddhism which designates that suffering results from craving sensory and mental objects.
Devi Bhagavata Purana: Composed around the 15th century, one of the major Puranas of Bhakti Hinduism which focuses on the Goddess Devi, they mythological wife of Shiva; the text is central to proponents of Shaktsm
Dharma: in Hinduism, social duty including the caste system and four stages of life (asramana). In Buddhism, dharma refers to the teachings of Buddha.
Dharmasastras: "Law books" in Hinduism such as the Law of Manu which mandate social duties (dharma).
Divination: An attempt to understand communication from the dead by means of various signs; the I Ching, one of the Five Classics of Confucianism, is the most noted of these in popular Chinese belief systems.
Doctrine of the Mean (Chung Yung): philosophical section from the Book of Rites which advocates maintaining a mental state of equilibrium between extreme emotions; it is one of the Four Books (shu) of Confucianism.
Dravidian: Original dark skinned inhabitants of India's Indus Valley civilization from 3500-1500 BCE.
Eightfold Path: Fourth noble truth of Buddhism, also called the "middle path," which includes proper cultivation of the following: views, aims, speech, conduct, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and contemplation.
Emptiness (sunyata): Central notion in Mahayana Buddhism that ultimate reality is not discoverable; the term is functionally the same as nirvana, Buddha-nature, suchness, and the Eternal Buddha.
Eternal Buddha (dharmakaya): In Mahayana Buddhism's Triple Body (trikaya) theory, the Eternal Buddha is undifferientiated absolute existence behind all appearances, and functionally the same as nirvana, emptiness, Buddha-nature, and suchness.
Filial Obedience (hsiao): Central Confucian concept designating respect for elders.
Five Classics (ching): 12th century CE designation for five early Chinese classical texts which were purportedly compiled by Confucius; they are The Book of Changes (I Ching), Book of History (Shu Ching), Book of Poetry (Shih Ching), Record of Rites (Li Chi), Spring and Autumn Annals (Ch'un Ch'iu).
Five Elements (wu-hsing): Five principal substances in Chinese thought, which are wood, fire, earth, metal, and water.
Five Relationships: Traditional Confucian superior-subordinate social relationships between (1) father and son, (2) elder brother and younger brother, (3) husband and wife, (4) elder friend and junior friend, and (5) ruler and subject.
Four Books (shu): 12th century CE designation for four early Confucian philosophical writings; they are the The Analects (Lun Yu), (2) The Great Learning (Ta Hsueh), The Doctrine of the Mean (Chung Yung), The Mencius (Meng-tzu).
Four Goals of Life (purusharthas): Ideal aims of life in Hindu social duty (dharma), including pleasure (kama), success (artha), right conduct (dharma), and liberation (moksha).
Four Noble Truths: central doctrine of Buddhism which contends that (1) life is suffering, (2) suffering comes from desire, (3) extinguishing desire (nirvana) ends suffering, and (4) desire is extinguished through the eightfold path (or the middle way).
Four Stages of Life (asramana): Hindu social duty (dharma) designating four ideal life stages: student (brahmacarin), householder (grihashta), forest dweller (vanaprastha), and ascetic (sannysin).
Gautama: Family name of Gautama Siddhartha (563-483 BCE), known as "The Buddha" and founder of Buddhism.
Good Government: View in the Confucian Analects that rulers should rule by setting a moral example which the whole country will follow.
Great Learning (Ta Hsio): Short philosophical section from the Book of Rites which states that a ruler's virtuous conduct will be transferred down the social hierarchy to the people; it is one of the Four Books (shu) of Confucianism.
Great Ultimate (t'ai-chi): Main productive force of the universe as described in the I Ching and developed by Neo-Confucianism.
Gunas: Literally "strands"; three essential features of prakriti (our physical nature) in the Samkya school of Hinduism; the three gunas are consciousness (sattva), activity (rajas), and inactivity (tamas).
Han Dynasty: Period in Chinese history from 206 BCE- 220 CE during which time Confucianism became the dominant religion.
Hinayana: "Little raft" school of Buddhism as so named by their Mahayana Buddhist rivals; the school later changed its name to "Theravada."
Hindu: General term designating the religion of India and its various movements including Vedic Hinduism, Brahmanism, and Bhakti Hinduism.
Hsuan-tsang (596-664 CE): Chinese Mahayana philosopher who followed the Yogacara School, thus founding in China the School of Consciousness-Only (Fa-hsiang).
Hsun-Tzu (298-238 BCE): Early skeptical Confucian philosopher who argued that all events are in accord with natural law, and that humans are by nature selfish; his writings are collected in a work titled The Hsun-Tzu.
Hui-neng (638-713 CE): Sixth and final Chinese Patriarch of Ch'an Buddhism whose life and teachings are presented in the Platform Sutra (Liu-tsu-ta-shih Fa-pao-t'an-ching).
Humanity (jen): Central Confucian concept advocating benevolent action towards people.
I Ching: Literally "Book of Changes," a book of written oracles associated with 64 abstract figures; one of the Five Classics of Confucianism.
Identity of Opposites: Taoist notion of the Chuang-Tzu that opposing descriptions of things are relative and in fact point to a single underlying reality.
Investigation of Things: Concept in the Great Learning which prompts moral conduct which, in turn, culminates in social happiness; Neo-Confucianist Chu Hsi identified this with a study of structural form (li), in contrast to Lu Hsiang-shan and Wang Yang Ming who identified it with the study of mind and its innate knowledge.
Isvarakrsna: 4th century CE founder of the Hindu school of Samkya; author of Samkhyakarika (literally "Verses on the Samkhya").
Karma Yoga: Sub-school of Hindu Yoga which advocates becoming indifferent to the consequences of one's actions, thereby disassociating oneself from one's ordinary consciousness
Karma, law of: Hindu view that the good and bad consequences of one's actions affect one's status in future lives (samsara)
Karma: "Action" in Hinduism and Buddhism, often associated with the doctrine of karma.
Ko Hung (280-340 CE): Author of the Religious Taoist text Book of the Master who Embraces Simplicity (Pao-p'u-tzu) which describes various techniques for attaining immortality.
Koan System: Instruction technique of the Rinsai school of Zen Buddhism in which a master poses a series of koans to his students over a period of several years.
Koan: Paradoxical question posed by Zen masters using the koan system, such as "what is the sound of one hand clapping?"
Krishna: Legendary Hindu figure in the Bhagavad Gita who is said to be a human incarnation of the god Vishnu.
Kuo Hsiang (d. 312 CE): Neo-Taoist philosopher who emphasized that the Tao is non-existence, and things arise from nature (t'ien).
Lankavatra Sutra: 4th century CE Mahayana Buddhist text of the Yogacara school which is most noted for its lengthy discussion of nirvana in Chapter 8.
Lao-Tzu: Legendary founder of Taoism and author of the Tao Te Ching, who is said to have been an older contemporary of Confucius.
Li: Important philosophical term of varied meaning throughout Confucian history; Early Confucian writings depict li as ceremonial formality; Neo-Confucian writers such as Chu Hsi see it as a metaphysical principal of structural form, which is in contrast with material force (ch'i).
Lieh-Tzu (c. 450-375 BCE): Early Taoist philosopher of whom almost nothing is known; a third century CE text by the name Lieh-Tzu is pseudonymously attributed to him which emphasizes the certainty of our annihilation, resigning oneself to fate, and avoiding all effort in life.
Lotus Sutra (saddharma-pundarika): An early Mahayana Buddhist text (composed between 100 BCE and 200 CE) which emphasizes the means-to-ends ability (upaya).
Lu Hsiang-Shan (1139-1193): Neo-Confucian philosopher and founder of the School of Mind; Lu argued that knowledge of the world and morals is inntate to our minds, and that there is only one universal mind.
Mahayana: "Large raft" school of Buddhism which sees religion as a group effort, emphasizes the role of the Bodhisattva, sees nirvana as the same state as the ordinary realm of life and death, and describes ultimate reality as emptiness, suchness and Buddha-nature.
Manu, Law of (Manava Dharmasastra): Most famous of the Hindu codes of law (Dharmasastras), written about 200 BCE.
Mara: Hindu god of pestilence, better known as the tempter who tried to foil Buddha's attainment of enlightenment
Material Force (ch'i): Neo-Confucian term used by writers such as Chu Hsi who see it as a metaphysical principal in contrast with structural form (li).
Maya: Hindu term coined by Advaita Vedanta to refer to the illusory or deceptive nature of the world which prompts us to make distinctions.
Mencius (390-305 BCE): Latinized name for Meng-tzu, the most important Confucian writer after Confucius; Mencius emphisized the importance of humanity (jen) and righteousness (i), and argued that human nature is essentially good. His writings, the Mencius, are one of the Four Books (shu) of Confucianism.
Middle Path (majjhimapatipada): Central doctrine taught by Buddha concerning the avoidance of extremes as a means of attaining enlightenment; early Buddhist writings associate the Middle Path with the Eightfold Path.
Middle Path School (madhyamika): Indian school of Mayanana Buddhism founded by Nagarjuna in the 2nd century CE, emphasizing the emptiness of all things, including nirvana and the ordinary world of life and death; the school continued in China as the School of Consciousness-Only (Fa-hsiang).
Moksha: "Release"; Hindu notion of the ending of the cycle of reincarnation (samsara); also associated with the highest stage of religious awareness and Yoga meditation.
Mo-Tzu (480-390 BCE): Early Chinese philosopher and founder of Mohism who criticized Confucianism for being too ritualistic and socially passive; Mo-tzu argued that, to ward off social chaos, we should love everyone as a matter of self-interest.
Nagarjuna (c. 150-250 CE): Founder of the Middle Path School of Mahayana Buddhism, and author of the Treatise on the Fundamentals of the Middle Path (Mulamadhyamakakarika), which emphasizes the emptiness of all things.
Neo-Confucianism: Broad Confucian movement beginning in the 11th century CE which developed metaphysical doctrines at times borrowing from Buddhism and Taoism; founded by Chou Tun-i, other leading Neo-Confucianists were Chu Hsi, Lu Hsiang-shan, and Wang Yang Ming.
Neo-Taoism: Movement within Philosophical Taoism during the 3rd and 4th centuries CE which drew from Confucianism; leading proponents are Wang Pi, Ho Yen, Hsiang Hsiu and Kuo Hsiang.
Neti Neti: Literally, "not this, not this"; famous Hindu expression from the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad which indicates that the Atman cannot be identified with this or that particular physical thing.
Nirvana: Literally "to extinguish," highest state of existence in Buddhism; in Theravada Buddhism nirvana is a realm beyond ordinary consciousness, and in Mahayana Buddhism nirvana is the same empty realm as ordinary conscious existence.
No Self (anatta): Buddhist doctrine that we have not unified and individual self, but only a fluctuating series of material and conscious states (skandhas). No self is one of the Three Marks of Existence (ti-lakkhana) in Buddhism.
Non-Action (wu-wei): Taoist position that we should avoid all unnatural action and act passively and spontaneously.
Non-Mind (wu-tsin): Taoist position that we should eliminate knowledge to allow us to live spontaneously.
Pali Canon: the oldest sacred collection of Buddhist writings from the 3rd-1st centuries BCE, written in the Pali language, and comprising three main divisions: the "Basket of Discipline" (Vinaya Pitaka), the "Basket of Discourses" (Sutta Pitaka), and the "Basket of Ultimate Doctrine" (Abhidhamma Pitaka).
Paramita: Literally "perfections"; Mahayana Buddhism notes 10 perfections of the ideal bodhisattva: giving (dana), morality (sila), patience (ksanti), vigor (virya), contemplation (dhyana), wisdom (prajna), means-to-ends ability (upaya), resolution (pranidhana), strength (bala), and knowledge (jnana).
Patanjali: Unknown Hindu figure from the 4th-6th centuries CE, and author of the Yoga Sutra which describes eight steps to meditation.
Perfection of Wisdom (prajnaparamita): In Mahayana Buddhism, an early collection of writings beginning about 100 BCE which focuses on the importance of wisdom among the ten ideal perfections (paramitas); emphasizing the notion of emptiness (sunyata), the most famous of these works are the Diamond Cutter Sutra (vajracchedika-prajnaparaita) and the Heart Sutra (prajnaparamita-hydaya).
Period of 100 Philosophers: period of philosophical creativity in reaction to China's warring states period (403-221 BCE), later classed into six schools: Confucianism, Taoism, Mohism, Yin and Yang School, Logicians, and Legalism.
Philosophical Taoism (tao-chia): Early non-religious direction of Taoism as found in the Tao Te Ching, the Chuang-Tzu, the Lieh-Tzu, Neo-Taoism.
Prajna: Literally, "wisdom", one of the ten perfections (paramitas) of Mahayana Buddhism; this wisdom is usually seen as an understanding of the emptiness of all things.
Prakriti: Notion of our physical nature in the Samkya and Yoga systems of Hinduism; contrasted with purusha (inner transcendent self).
Pratyekabuddha: The isolated practitioner of Theravada Buddhism who seeks enlightenment outside of a formal monastic setting; by contrast, the Arhat seeks enlightenment within a formal monastic setting.
Purana: Devotional literature of Bhakti Hinduism, the most famous of which is the Bhagavata Purana which describes the life of Krishna; there are 18 authoritative "great" Puranas, and 18 authoritative "minor" Puranas.
Pure Land Buddhism: School of Mahayana Buddhism founded in China by Tao-cho (562-645 CE) which emphasizes devotion to Amida, the Celestial Buddha who founded a heavenly Buddha-Land called the Pure Land which awaits his followers upon their deaths.
Purusha: Notion of one's inner transcendent self in the Samkya and Yoga systems of Hinduism; contrasted with prakriti (our physical nature) which hides our inner self.
Questions of King Milinda (Milindapanha): Important Theravada Buddhist philosophical text written about 100 CE in the Pali language; the issues discussed include the self, karma, and reincarnation.
Ramanuja: 11th century CE Hindu founder of Visista-advaita Vedanta (qualified monistic Vedanta) who maintains that God himself is composed of parts; individual souls and the physical world comprise the body of God.
Rectification of Names (cheng ming): Central Confucian concept involving the correct use of language such that words and actions conform to reality.
Religious Taoism (Tao-chiao): Later development within the Taoist tradition which emphasized techniques of attaining physical immortality in this life.
Return (fu, fan): Taoist notion that all things follow a natural process by which they grow from the Tao, and then disintegrate into the Tao.
Samadhi: "without support"; the highest stage of meditation in Hinduism's school of Raja Yoga.
Samkya: One of the six Hindu systems of emancipation (Darsanas) which emphasizes a distinction between purusha (our inner transcendent self) and prakriti (our physical nature).
Samsara: Hindu notion of reincarnation in which one's present life is followed by a series of new lives in new physical bodies.
Sangha: General term referring to religious communities in India; in Buddhism the Sangha refers either more narrowly to the monastic communites, or more broadly to the Buddhist community consisting of the both lay and monastic practitioners.
Sankara (788-820 CE): Hindu founder of Advaita Vedanta, a monistic (or nondual) interpretation of Vedanta philosophy; Sankara emphasizes the unity of the individual self and the larger world; the deceptive (maya) nature of the world prompts us to erroneously distinguish the two.
Sanskrit: Ancient Indo-European language in which the classic texts of Hinduism are written.
Satori: Term for "enlightenment" in Zen Buddhism.
School of Mind (Hsin-Hsueh): Idealist-oriented Neo-Confucian school founded by Lu Hsiang-Shan which emphasized innate knowledge of the mind.
School of Structural Form (Li-Hsueh): Rationalist-oriented Neo-Confucianist school founded by Chu Hsi which emphasized understanding the structural form (li) behind things.
Seated Meditation (zazen): Zen Buddhist practice of sitting and meditating on ordinary conscious experience for long periods of time.
Seng-chao (384-414 CE): Chinese Mahayana philosopher who followed the Middle Path School of Nagarjuna.
Shakti: Hindu notion of creative power, associated with the Goddess Devi, wife of Shiva.
Shaktism: Hindu tradition which focuses on the creative power (shakti) of the Goddess Devi, wife of Shiva.
Shiva: destroyer God of the Trimurti in Bhakti Hinduism.
Siddhartha: First name of Gautama Siddhartha (563-483 BCE), known as "The Buddha" and founder of Buddhism.
Skandhas: Literally "heaps," sometimes translated as "aggregates" or "components"; in Buddhism, there are five skandhas which shape our human perception of things: matter, sensation, perception, predisposition, and consciousness.
Social Custom (li): Central Confucian concept advocating effortless adherence to social norms and performance of social rituals.
Ssu-ma Ch'ien: Author of classic Chinese historical text titled Historical Records (c. 100 BCE) which contains brief accounts of Confucius, Lao-tzu, and Chuang-tzu.
Structural Form (li): Neo-Confucian term used by writers such as Chu Hsi who see it as a metaphysical principal in contrast with material force (ch'i).
Suchness (tathata): Mahayana Buddhist notion of ultimate reality which designates existence as it is in itself, as opposed to how it appears to us; the term is functionally the same as nirvana, Buddha-nature, emptiness, and the Eternal Buddha.
Suffering (dukkha): First noble truth of Buddhism which designates a state of anguish that results from clinging or grasping (tanha, trishna). Suffering is one of the Three Marks of Existence (ti-lakkhana) in Buddhism.
Summit of Nothingness (wu-chi): Taoist concept of the realm of nonexistence from which all things emerge and then return (fu); Neo-Confucianists such as Chou Tun-i and Chu Hsi identified the Summit of Nothingness with the Great Ultimate (t'ai-chi).
Superior Person (chun-tzu): Central Confucian concept designating the ideal human who personifies the highest moral attributes.
Tao Te Ching: Literally, "The Way and its Power"; oldest and most important text in Taoism which emphasizes living according to the Tao, the virtuous power (te) we attain from the Tao, the return of everything to Tao, and the principles of non-action, non-mind.
Taoism: Chinese movement originating in the warring states period which advocates following the Tao and living in harmony with nature; "Philosophical Taoism" and "Religious Taoism" are its two principal approaches.
Tat Tvam Asi: Literally "you are that"; Hindu expression in the Chandogya Upanishads indicating that the individual person is identical with the universal Brahman.
Tathagata: Literally, "thus gone," an honorary title used by Buddha in reference to himself, perhaps indicating that he has "gone before" others on the path of enlightenment.
The Record of Rites (Li Chi): One of the Five Classics of Confucianism, an anthology of rules of dancing, music, ancestor worship, and imperial sacrifices; it contains philosophical discussions on cosmology, yin and yang, the five elements, and the five relationships.
Theravada: Literally "way of the elders," later designation for the Hinayana school of Buddhism which sees religion as an individual effort, emphasizes the role of the Arhat, sees nirvana as distinct from ordinary existence, and de-emphasizes metaphysical speculations.
Three Jewels (tiratana): The three most precious things in Buddhism, namely, the Buddha, the law (dharma), and the Buddhist community (sangha)
Three Marks of Existence (ti-lakkhana): Buddhist designation for three aspects of human physical existence: suffering (dukkha), impermanence (anicca), and no self (anatta).
T'ien: Chinese term for "heaven" used in philosophical Neo-Confucianist and Neo-Taoist discussions to mean "nature"
T'ien-t'ai: School of Chinese Mahayana Buddhism (Tendai in Japan), founded by Chih-I (538-597 CE); the school follows the Yogacara doctrine of absolute mind and proposes that three thousand realms of the phenomenal world are contained in a single thought.
Transformation (hua): Taoist notion in the Chuang-Tzu that everything in nature involves transformation from one state to another.
Treatise on Actions and their Rewards (T'ai-shang Kan-ying P'ien): 10th century text of Religious Taoism which maintains that people lose longevity in proportion to their evil deeds.
Trimurrti: Trimorphic view of God in Bhakti Hinduism consisting of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.
Tripitika: Literally "three baskets", another name for the Buddhist Pali Canon.
Triple Body (trikaya): In Mahayana Buddhism, the notion of three levels or "bodies" of Buddha's existence: (a) the Eternal Buddhas of the Body of Dharma (dharmakaya), (2) human incarnations in the Body of Transformation (nirmanakaya), and (3) Celestial Buddhas in the Body of Bliss (sambhogakaya).
Upanishads: 108 philosophical texts of Brahmanic Hinduism composed between 800-500 BCE which emphasize the notion of the Atman-Brahman.
Upaya: "Means-to-ends ability," or "useful means," one of the ten perfections (paramitas) of Mahayana Buddhism; upaya typically involves the use of differing (and sometimes inferior) approaches to enlightenment.
Vedanta: Literally "end of the Vedas"; one of Hinduism's formal schools of emancipation (darsanas) which draws heavily on the Upanishads and the Brahma Sutras and the doctrine of the Atman Brahman; its two main sub-schools are Sankara's Advaita Vedanta (monistic Vedanta) and Ramanuja's Visista-advaita Vedanta (qualified monistic Vedanta).
Vedas: Hindu sacred texts of the Aryan invaders written between 1500-800 BCE which includes the Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Arth-Veda.
Vedic Hinduism: Religion of the India's Aryan invaders (1500-800 BCE), the sacred text of which is the Vedas
Vishnu: The preserver God of the Trimurti in Bhakti Hinduism who is said to have human incarnations (avitars).
Wang Yang Ming (1472-1529): Philosopher and statesman, and leading proponent of the Neo-Confucianist School of Mind; Wang argued that all knowledge is innate to our minds, and that knowledge and actions are co-related.
Warring States Period: period social and political unrest in China's history from 403-221 BCE in reaction to which China's classical philosophy emerged.
Way of Supreme Peace (t'ai-p'ing tao): Messianic sect of Religious Taoism founded by Chang Chueh (d. 184 CE) which emphasized based formal fasting ceremonies (chai) involving ritual healing and public confession of fault.
Yang Chu (c. 450 BCE): Early Chinese philosopher who emphasized self-preservation and may have inspired Taoist notions about the evils of society.
Yang Chu Chapter: Famous chapter in the Leih-Tzu text arguing that we should enjoy the pleasures of life while we can since death is certain.
Yin and Yang: negative (female) and postive (male) complementary forces of the universe central to Chinese thought since perhaps as early as 1,000 BCE.
Yoga: Hindu meditative practices; the formal school of Yoga developed in the middle ages contains seven sub-schools: Jnana Yoga (knowldge), Karma Yoga (action), Bhakti Yoga (devotion), Mantra Yoga (sounds), Laya Yoga (dissolution), Hatha Yoga (postures, breathing), and Raja Yoga (meditation).
Yogacara School: Idealist school of Mahayana Buddhism founded in the 4th century CE by two brothers, Asanga and Vasubandhu; the school maintains that ultimate realty is an undiffernentiated mind; eight kinds of mental consciousness are responsible for our erroneous perceptions of an external world and differientiated self.
Zen: Japanese name for the Chinese school of Ch'an Buddhism. (See Ch'an).
James Fieser
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