1. Non-biological synthesis of simple organic molecules from inorganic precursors

2. Formation of polymers

3. A polymer developed self-replication

4. -- phylogeny should show a large number of "T" species as each others closest relatives, with a "B" as the next closest relative and one more "B" as the outgroup to all the rest

5. adaptive radiation

6. b.

7. bootstrap analysis

8-9. parsimony, likelihood

10. von Baer's  Law

11.  c.

12.  Phylogeny should show two species with "5" as each others closest relatives, then a species with "4" as a relative to those two, and another species with 4 as the outgroup to all the rest. (NOTE: the two "4" species must NOT be each others closest relatives.)

13. no

14.  heterochrony

15. The third phylogeny

16-17.  convergent evolution, derived state.

18.  altruism

19.  a

20. e

21.  b.

22. d.

23. decrease
24. female
25.
Since asexual individuals pass both alleles for each trait to each offspring, while sexual individuals pass just one allele for each trait to each offspring, alleles for asexual reproduction are passed from generation to generation at twice the rate of alleles for sexual reproduction.  The proposed explanation for the evolution of sexual reproduction only indicates a benefit to the population, and is therefore based on group selection and will not explain the evolution of sex because sex would be lost through individual selection before the effect of group selection, which depends on population persistence versus extinction, would be seen.
 

26. TWO of:

Honest advertisement: orange color indicates good genetic quality of males; females benefit by selecting orange males because their offspring inherit these good genes and survive better.

Sensory bias (exploitation): the females visual system is adapted for some other reason to be especially sensitive to orange; as a result, orange males are most easily seen and females mate with them the most.

Runaway sexual selection: because of random mutation, there was initially variation in both orange color, in males, and preference for orange, in females.  When females who preferred orange mated with orange males, this created linkage disequilibrium between these traits in their offspring, so that further evolution of orange because of female preference led to increase in orange and in female preference; this process continued each generation to produce bright orange males and females with a strong preference for orange.

27.  (a)  After a dispersal event, in the small founding population, genetic drift leads to random fluctuation in allele frequencies so that the population is likely by chance to move near a different adaptive peak from the original population.  Subsequent evolution through natural selection, once the population grows large enough so that it is not just evolving through drift, will take the population to this new peak.  It will thus be different from the original population and likely to be or become a new species.

(b) They suggest vicariance events because vicariance events lead to speciation in many groups at the same time and therefore lead to different groups showing the same phylogenetic pattern with respect to geography, as is shown here.  These suggest that the initial vicariance separated the northwest from all other areas, then the southwest was separated from the eastern region, and finally the northeast and southeast were separated from each other.

 28.  (1) since California Scrub Jays disperse, r, the relatedness between altruists and recipients of altruism, will be low since related individuals will not meet each other; it will be much higher in Florida Scrub Jays.  As a result, it is likely that alleles for altruism in Fl. SJ's will be carried by the recipient of altruism, so when the recipient reproduces they will be passed on and altruism will evolve.

(2) Since Fl. SJ's have few available nesting sites, c, the number of offspring produced by non-altruists, will be low -- many will not be able to nest.  As a result, alleles for non-altruism will be passed on at a low rate, making it more likely that alleles for altruism will be passed on at a higher rate than they are so that altruism is more likely to evolve.